A Brief History on Cartography & Tips to Spot a Forgery
Often times when shopping for vintage goods, or items of historical significance, we are met with numerous questions and concerns. In my experience, the biggest questions a collector will face is: Is the value appropriate for the item in question?
I've spent numerous hours trying to answer this question, and while I am by no means an expert, I do have some experience in identifying forgeries, specifically regarding maps, and know enough to share my experiences and information with others.
While this list is not all-encompassing, it can provide you some guidance as to whether the map you’re interested in truly is a good deal, or too good to be true. Several print technologies were employed at different periods in cartographic history, each leaving behind identifiable marks and material features.
Types of Map Prints:
Copper engraving:
Copperplate engraving is a longstanding printing process dating back to the late 16th century, Italy. It superseded woodblock printing, which was the standard for centuries prior, and dating back to 7th century China.
Copperplate engraving stands as one of the most important innovations in the history of printmaking, particularly in the production of antique maps and collectible vintage prints. This complex technique, which involves incising fine lines into a copper plate to create a printable surface, played a foundational role in early cartography and the visual documentation of geography, culture, and art.
While engraving as a concept predates the printing press—with roots in ancient Egypt, Rome, and Asia—it was not until the 15th century in Renaissance Italy that copperplate engraving became directly linked to printing. According to tradition, Florentine goldsmiths discovered that the incised designs used to decorate precious metals could also transfer ink to paper. This accidental discovery marked the beginning of intaglio printmaking and its eventual role in the widespread dissemination of information.
One of the earliest and most significant uses of copperplate engraving in publishing came through early printed maps, particularly in the monumental Geographia of Ptolemy, printed in Rome in 1478. This edition, containing 27 engraved maps by Sweynheym and Buckink, is considered a milestone in historical mapmaking and a key example of the fusion between scientific precision and artistic craftsmanship.
Buckinck, A. E., Ptolemy, 2. C. A. & Sweynheim, K. (1478) Geography. Rome: Arnold Buckinck. [Map] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2021668470/.
The technique spread rapidly across Europe, gaining refinement and prestige. In Italy, masters like Marcantonio Raimondi advanced the art by reproducing Renaissance paintings as engravings, while Germany produced Albrecht Dürer, whose contributions to both engraving and early etching set new technical standards. Dürer’s work, known for its extraordinary line quality and detail, is still revered by collectors of antique engravings.
By the 16th and 17th centuries, copperplate engraving had become central to the creation of vintage cartographic prints. The Dutch and Flemish schools—featuring artists like Lucas van Leyden, the Sadelers, and the Galles—brought technical innovation and variety to the medium. France became known for its excellence in portrait and historical engraving, particularly under the reign of Louis XIV, with prominent names such as Gérard Audran and Edelinck leading the field.
In England, the tradition emerged more slowly, but by the 18th century it had developed into a respected school of its own. Engravers like Hogarth, Sir Robert Strange, and Francis Vivares made significant contributions, particularly in landscape engraving and mezzotint portraiture, a technique especially favored in British collecting circles.
Technically, copperplate engraving is a painstaking process. The artist uses a burin (or graver) to cut fine, deliberate lines into the surface of a polished copper plate. Alternatively, in etched prints, acid is used to corrode the lines after being exposed through an etching ground. Ink is then worked into these recessed lines, and the surface is carefully wiped clean. Under the immense pressure of a rolling press, dampened paper is forced into the ink-filled grooves, producing the final impression. This intaglio printing process distinguishes copperplate from relief methods like woodblock printing, and gives early engravings their characteristic richness and texture.
Collectors and dealers of antique maps and vintage engravings value copperplate prints for their historical significance, tactile depth, and exceptional craftsmanship. The technique also makes it easier to identify genuine impressions—through details like plate marks, ink residue, and the unique qualities of the paper used. In map collecting especially, the physical features of copperplate prints serve as both aesthetic and forensic indicators of authenticity.
Though modern printing methods have long since overtaken copperplate for mass production, the tradition remains a hallmark of high-quality historical printmaking. For those who collect, sell, or study vintage maps, engraved charts, and early printed atlases, understanding the history and process of copperplate engraving is not just a matter of technical interest—it is essential for evaluating and preserving the legacy of one of history’s most enduring visual arts.
Woodcut Engraving / Printing:
Woodcut engraving represents one of the earliest and most historically significant methods of map production. As a relief printing technique, woodcut involves carving away all non-image areas from a woodblock, leaving the desired lines and forms raised. Ink is then applied to these raised surfaces and transferred directly to paper under pressure, producing a mirror-image impression. This method stands in contrast to copperplate engraving—an intaglio process—and lithography, a planographic process, each requiring distinct tools, materials, and conceptual approaches.
In the context of early cartography, woodcut was the dominant form of printed mapmaking before the widespread adoption of copper engraving in the mid-16th century. Early printed atlases, such as the 1477 edition of Ptolemy’s Geographia, featured maps executed using this technique. While less refined in detail compared to copperplate prints, woodcut maps were highly effective for large-scale dissemination due to their relative ease of production and affordability.
Each woodcut map should be understood as a direct impression from a specific, physical printing block. Every map is, therefore, a literal reflection of that block's condition at a particular point in its history. Over time, intentional edits or unintentional damage to the block resulted in revised states of the same map—elements that researchers can track to reconstruct the chronology of its production and use.
Because woodblocks rarely survive, our knowledge of them is derived from the surviving impressions. This reinforces two foundational principles of map analysis: (1) that every printed map is an impression from a unique printing platform, and (2) that the paper we observe is a mirror of the physical block or plate that existed in a specific time and place.
Although woodcut fell out of favor by the late 16th century as copperplate engraving became the standard for more detailed cartographic work, it remains a cornerstone of early map printing history. For modern collectors and historians of antique maps, recognizing a woodcut map involves not only understanding its visual style but also appreciating its place in the evolution of print technologies and the material realities of historical map production.
Further Identifying Old Maps:
Paper Quality:
Always inspect a supposedly pre-1800 map by holding it up to a light source to check for chain-lines, watermarks, dates, or indicators of modern manufacturing..
The key difference arises around 1800 when machine-made paper crafted from wood pulp became commonplace. When held to the light, wove paper appears uniform and smooth, possibly showing only a single watermark. It typically feels lighter and smoother compared to handmade paper.
Handmade paper, produced before 1800, features a distinct grid pattern of chain lines. Watermarks, created by wire molds, often appear once or twice on folio-sized maps. This pattern reflects the tray used by papermakers shaking the rag-based pulp. Forgers often neglect to replicate these chain lines accurately.
Ironically, handmade paper from before 1800 tends to preserve better than later machine-made paper. Heavy browning or foxing, as observed in J. G. Strong's Map of Queen Anne's County (1866, Maryland State Archives - Special Collections), is an exceptional example. An overly uniform browning is typically indicative of a counterfeit, reflecting a common misconception among forgers about the appearance of old paper. Authentic early maps usually exhibit at least some natural damage or discoloration; the complete absence of such signs likely indicates extensive restoration or forgery.
Signs of Wear:
The physical condition of a map often provides some of the clearest—yet most misunderstood—indicators of authenticity. General wear and aging can offer some insight into a map’s origin, but only when evaluated with a critical eye and informed mind. Genuine maps, particularly those produced prior to the 19th century, were frequently handled, folded, stored in less-than-ideal conditions, or bound within atlases. As a result, there are natural wear patterns, which are expected and often present in the form of minor fraying around the edges, uneven discoloration (or foxing, as discussed earlier), soft or hard creases from folding, or ink offsets due to prolonged pressure during the printing process.
However, collectors should be cautious of artificially introduced wear patterns. Uniform browning, chemically induced foxing, or perfectly symmetrical fold lines can be indicative of modern aging techniques. These features might appear authentic at first glance, but are frequently the result of deliberate attempts to replicate the effects of aging. These distinctions may be subtle, and require careful examination to reveals the inauthentic nature of wear.
A critical part of this evaluation involves considering whether the map’s physical condition logically aligns with its purported age and origin. Are there inconsistencies between the stated age and the condition of the paper? Is the wear distributed naturally, or does it appear staged? These questions are central to a rigorous examination. For example, the total absence of damage on a map that should exhibit at least some deterioration after centuries of existence can be just as suspicious as damage that appears too uniform or deliberate.
Authenticity is rarely established through a single detail. Instead, it emerges from the alignment of multiple factors: the paper, print method, coloration, signs of wear. Genuine, true aging tells a story of time, usage, and its method of storage. Attempts at artificially recreating that narrative might deceive the naked eye, but often falls short under scrutiny.
As I have previously stated, this list is not all inclusive. Keep your sensibility, and don’t rush into purchasing something if you’re not certain. I hope that by reading this, enterprising map collectors, or those simply looking to learn, can gain something from this article. I am by no means an "expert" in this category, but have gained enough insight over the years to produce something that I may find meaningful to others.
“Maps reveal the secrets of the world, but only if one knows how to read them” - The Cartographers
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